tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-90193819323920894532011-03-27T12:14:18.916-07:00Linguistic cafeThis blog is mainly dedicated for linguistic topics that are related to discourse analysis in conversation including turn taking, speech acts and a lot of many other topics.Ahmed Fathyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01277619691895114272noreply@blogger.comBlogger10125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9019381932392089453.post-91582054891646710182010-08-24T21:25:00.000-07:002011-03-27T12:10:35.534-07:002011-03-27T12:10:35.534-07:00Adjacency pairs<div style="text-align: justify;">Adjacency pairs are "Pairs of utterances in talk are often mutually dependent" (McCarthy, p119). They are considered to be an automatic sequences consisting of a first part and a second part. These parts are produced by the different participants in a conversation. After the speaker utters the first part, the first speaker immediately expects his conversation partner to utter the second part of the pair. The most obvious example of adjacency pairs are thanking-response, request-acceptance, and question-answer sequences. In addition to, opening sequences and greetings typically contain adjacency pairs (Pöhacker, 05.Feb.2010). The following example illustrates:</div>A: Congratulations on the new job, by the way.<br />
B: Oh, thanks.<br />
A: I've just passed my driving test.<br />
B: Oh, congratulations.<br />
A: Thanks. <br />
(McCarthy, p122)<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">If the second participant fail to provide the second part, there will be a kind of conversational disrupt. Thus, the adjacency pairs are considered to be one of the factor that contribute to the flow of conversation.</div><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">Consequently, there are more than one factor that help to accomplish smooth conversation in order to minimize the gap and overlaps between the turns during an interaction. Those elements are turn taking rules, turn taking cues and the organization of sequence.</div><div class="blogger-post-footer"><img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/9019381932392089453-9158205489164671018?l=linguisticcafe.blogspot.com' alt='' /></div>Ahmed Fathyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01277619691895114272noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9019381932392089453.post-57492182366006074072010-08-24T21:24:00.000-07:002011-03-27T12:11:00.946-07:002011-03-27T12:11:00.946-07:00Sequence organization<div style="text-align: justify;">The organization of turn taking seems to be one of the fundamental organizations of the practice of talk during an interaction. That is because, turn taking organization achieves responsiveness. One participant is able to show that what he is saying and doing is responsive to what the other participant has said and done. (Schecloff, 2010 P1 ). The minimal unit of interaction is an exchange of at least a pair in which exchange of interaction is occurred. Adjacency Paris is considered to be one form of turn sequence in conversation.</div><div class="blogger-post-footer"><img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/9019381932392089453-5749218236600607407?l=linguisticcafe.blogspot.com' alt='' /></div>Ahmed Fathyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01277619691895114272noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9019381932392089453.post-32911325131740061912010-08-24T21:23:00.000-07:002011-03-27T12:11:21.608-07:002011-03-27T12:11:21.608-07:00III. Back-channel<div style="text-align: justify;">It is different from the above mentioned phenomena which are problems in conversation; back-channel is used to make conversation smoother because it has the ability to minimize gaps and overlaps. While the speaker is talking, the listener does not remain silent, but rather provides verbal and non-verbal response without the intention to take the turn (Pöhacker, 15.Feb.2010). Back-channel is used by the listener to give signals that show that the messages are delivered. It is important because it indicates that the listener pays attention to the speaker and still in the conversation. There two kinds of back-channel; it can be verbal like " Right", "cool", "great" and "really. It can be also verbal but not lexical such as "um", "Oh", "ah", and "mm". The other kind is the non-verbal like laughing, crying and shouting.</div><div class="blogger-post-footer"><img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/9019381932392089453-3291132513174006191?l=linguisticcafe.blogspot.com' alt='' /></div>Ahmed Fathyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01277619691895114272noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9019381932392089453.post-66091845123492252842010-08-24T21:22:00.000-07:002011-03-27T12:11:47.785-07:002011-03-27T12:11:47.785-07:00II. Silence<div style="text-align: justify;">Silence happens in conversation when no party self-select or the pointed participant refuses to take the turn. Turn-taking rules have three options In order to achieve continuity of talk. But the refusal to apply such options is permitted and results in silence. Silence can be divided into different kinds of non-speech; lapse, pause, and gap which are assessed according to their placement in the turn and the exchange. At TRP if current speaker stops and none of options for next turn is used, there is a lapse of the turn (Herman, 83). "Any transition where none of the options to speak has been employed, the possibility of a lapse and discontinuous talk arises " (Sacks, Schegloff, Jefferson, p715). Examples of lapse:</div>(1) J: Oh I could drive if you want me to.<br />
(2) C: well no I'll drive (I don't m//in')<br />
(3) J: hhh<br />
(4) (1.0)<br />
(5) J: Meant to offah.<br />
(6) (16.0)<br />
(7) J: Those shoes look nice when you keep <br />
on putting stuff on 'em.<br />
<br />
(Sacks, Schegloff, Jefferson., p715)<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">Lapse is obvious in line four and line six. It is an extended period of time which results from the refusal to apply the option of turn-taking rules. speaker C does not self- selects himself in line five and speaker J does not select him, so lapse occurs in line four.</div><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">Pause is an intra-turn speaker's silence not at TRP. It is due to hesitation or keeping the turn. "It happens when the speaker find it difficult to select the appropriate word or it might be rhetorical, as a kind of upbeat for something important will follow (Levelt, p 33)". Example for Pause:</div>(1) Jan : Dave (0.1) is something wrong?<br />
(2) Dave : What? What's wrong?<br />
(3) Jan : Never mind. <br />
<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">In this example there is a pause in line one. It is silence within the turn due to hesitation or in order to keep the turn. According to Herman, gap is silence at the end of a turn which is delayed and this silence is filled by some speaker and thus minimized (p83). Gaps occur between turn after TRP. Example for Gaps:</div>(1) A: (0:013) sure, I will give it to you.<br />
(2) B: Thanks.<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">Here the gap occurs at the TRP after the current speaker select the next speaker or when the next speaker self-selects himself. So it occurs between turns.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
</div><div class="blogger-post-footer"><img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/9019381932392089453-6609184512349225284?l=linguisticcafe.blogspot.com' alt='' /></div>Ahmed Fathyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01277619691895114272noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9019381932392089453.post-1373009686149723242010-08-24T21:15:00.000-07:002011-03-27T12:12:09.279-07:002011-03-27T12:12:09.279-07:00Turn-taking features<div style="text-align: left;">There are features that accompany the turn taking process and affect the exchange of turns among participants in conversation. These features either facilitate the conversation to pass smoothly or hinder the flow of speech. The most widely known features in conversation are overlaps, back-channel, interruption and gaps.</div><br />
<span style="color: #3333ff; font-size: 130%;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">I. Overlap</span></span><br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">One of the main of objectives of turn-taking is conversation with the minimal gaps and overlaps, a question must be raised here, what is meant by both gap and overlap and how they affect the conversation and turn taking system. Although participants generally abide by the rules of turn taking system, brief overlap may occur when two participants compete for the floor. A self-selecting speaker overlaps with a current speaker at a TRP and one of them has to leave the floor, thereby acknowledging the other right to the turn (Pöhacker, 15.Feb.2010). When overlap happens the current speaker does not yield the floor, but rather he rejects the interruption by speaking more loudly, more quickly and in a higher pitch (Coulthard, p58).Thus, Overlap happens spontaneously by self-selection when a current speaker does not select next speaker and a self-selecting speaker begins at a possible completion point may overlap with current speaker current speaker who decides to continue or with a second self-selecting speaker at a TRP. For example:<br />
(1) A: Mary's invited us to lunch. Do ya wanna go?<br />
(2) B: Sure. I'm not busy right now.<br />
(3) A: Good.<br />
(4) B: Think we oughta bring anything? <br />
<br />
(Pöhacker, 15. Feb.2010)<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">In this example, in line three speakers A expects that Speaker B finishes his turn at the first TRP and Speaker A self-selects himself, but the speaker B does not and continues his turn, so the next speaker overlaps with the current speaker. Speaker A gives the floor the speaker B in line four and stop talking in order to repair the error in conversation.<br />
Overlap occurs unintentionally and at the transition relevance place. It is considered to be supportive and does not violate the turn taking norms. It is different from the concept of interruption. Interruptions "refer to simultaneous talk that does not occur at or near a TRP" (Nofsinger, p102). In interruption a participant interrupts the speaker intentionally and turn is cut off before reaching the TRP. Interruption occurs when a participant during a conversation interrupts the speaker because he wants to say something at the moment. So, he interrupts the speaker and forces him to stop before reaching TRP.<br />
<br />
<br />
</div><br />
</div><div class="blogger-post-footer"><img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/9019381932392089453-137300968614972324?l=linguisticcafe.blogspot.com' alt='' /></div>Ahmed Fathyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01277619691895114272noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9019381932392089453.post-75552493612082821712010-08-24T21:14:00.001-07:002011-03-27T12:12:33.388-07:002011-03-27T12:12:33.388-07:00Turn-taking cues<div style="text-align: justify;">One of the questions that are asked about turn-taking all of the time is how speakers signal that they are ready to stop and let the other person start (Hudson, p136). Since Transfer of turn occurs at a transition relevance place, the end of the turn must be marked by some cues that indicate to listener that speaker is about to finish his turn and to be ready to take the turn and consequently minimizing the gaps and overlaps between turns. These cues can be verbal or non-verbal. Duncan is considered to be the first one who introduces these cues. He identifies six cues as turn signals in conversation five of them are verbal: intonation, drawl, body motion, sociocentric sequences, pitch, and syntax (Gibbon, 07.Nov.09). Moreover, eye-movements are considered to be of such cues. Research has shown that we normally look at the other person's eyes for much longer time when we listen than when we speak. So, when we are about to stop speaking and start listening, we look at the other person's eyes in anticipation for our role as listener. In the contrary, the other looks down when he is about to start his turn in anticipation of change of role (Hudson, p136). Turn-taking cues whether it is verbal or non-verbal differ from one culture to another. There is a very clear example of non-verbal behavior is most culture. It is the use of head movements to indicate ' Yes' or ' No'. There are cultural differences in the use of head movement for each meaning. For 'yes', some cultures like Western Europe and the United States use a top-to bottom movement, while other cultures like The East Mediterranean use a bottom-to-top movement (Hudson, P137).</div><div class="blogger-post-footer"><img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/9019381932392089453-7555249361208282171?l=linguisticcafe.blogspot.com' alt='' /></div>Ahmed Fathyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01277619691895114272noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9019381932392089453.post-49321273606030622582010-08-24T21:02:00.000-07:002011-03-27T12:13:03.817-07:002011-03-27T12:13:03.817-07:00Turn-taking Rules<div style="text-align: justify;">In conversation, Participants could not take the control as they want. Thus, there must be a set of rules governs when a speaker takes the turn, gives turn, or keeps it. These rules are proposed to make sure that there is only one participant who speaks at a time in order to minimize gaps and overlaps in each turn change. Thus, Sacks et al. propose a set of rules governing the turn-taking. These rules have ordered options and operate at the initial TRP. The following rules are considered to be the basic rules that govern turn construction:</div><br />
<ol><li> For any turn, at the initial transition-relevance place of an initial turn-constructional unit:<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">a) If the turn-so-far is so constructed as to involve the use of a 'current speaker selects next' technique, then the party so selected has the right and is obliged to take next turn to speak; no others have such rights or obligation, and transfer occurs at that place.</div></li>
</ol><div style="text-align: left;"><div style="text-align: justify;">b) If the turn-so-far is so constructed as not to involve the use a ' current speaker . selects next' technique, then self-selection for next speakership may, but need . not, be instituted; first starter acquires rights to a turn, and transfer occurs at . that place.</div><div style="text-align: justify;">c) If the turn-so-far is so constructed as not to involve the use of a ' current . speaker selects next' technique, then current speaker may, but need not . continue, unless another self-selection.</div><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">2. If, at the initial transition-relevance place of an initial turn-constructional unit, neither 1a nor 1b has operated, and, following the provision of 1c, current speaker has continued, then the rule-set a-c re-applies at the next transition-relevance place, and recursively at each next transition-relevance place, until transfer is effected.</div>(Sacks, Schegloff, Jefferson, p704)<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">So, the first rule is applied on the first TRP and it has three options. The First option states that if the current speaker chooses the next speaker, then the next speaker is obliged to take the turn and the current speaker stop. The second option states that if the current speaker does not select the next speaker, then any other party willing to speak may self-select. The first speaker gains the right to the next turn. The third option states that if the current speaker does not select the next speaker and no party self-select, so the current speaker may but need not continue. The second rule is applied on the subsequent TRP and states that if neither the first option nor the second can be applied nor the current speaker continues, then all rules should be re-applied on the next TRP until the transfer is achieved. These rules apply in order which means that the later rules only come into play if the earlier ones have not been invoked.</div><br />
<br />
<br />
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<span style="color: #3333ff; font-size: 130%; font-weight: bold;">A. Turn constructional component</span><br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">It is the unit which constructs a turn. These units are characterized by predictability of their closure as a unit. The end of the unit is the place where speaker change can occur and the turn may pass to another speaker in order to keep the progression of turns in motion. It can be clausal, phrasal, or lexical (Herman, P80). Here example of single-word turns:</div>(a) Desk: What is your last name Loraine?<br />
Caller: Dennis.<br />
Desk: What?<br />
Caller: Dennis.<br />
Example of single-phrase turns:<br />
(b) A: I have the- I have one class in the evening.<br />
B: On Mondays?<br />
Example of single-clause turns:<br />
(c) A: Uh you been down here before havenche.<br />
B: Yeh.<br />
A: Where the sidewalk is?<br />
<br />
(Sacks, Schegloff, Jefferson, pp 702-703. 05.Feb.2010)<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">Transition relevance Place (TRP) is the place at the end of TCU where speaker change may occur and the turn passes to another speaker, thus keeping the progression of turn motion (Herman, p80). That is to say, it is the transition point between the end of a turn and the beginning of other turn of other speaker. So, TRP makes it easy for each participant to recognize when he will be able to start or end the turn in each turn constructional unit. For example:</div><br />
A: Do you want the red jacket (.) (TRP) or the blue one(TRP) <br />
This example shows that the speaker completes two TRP in the turn. After the speaker finishes the first TRP, no participant takes the turn. So, the speaker continues speaking.<br />
<br />
<span style="color: #3333ff; font-size: 130%;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">B. Turn-allocation component. </span></span><br />
<br />
Turn allocation unit describe how turns are allocated among participants. Sacks et al. divide it into two groups:<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">Turn-allocation techniques are distributed into two groups: (a) those in which next turn is allocated by current speaker's selecting next speaker; and (b) those in which next turn is allocated by self-section. An example is:</div><br />
Sara: Ben you want some ( )?<br />
Ben: All right I'll have a,<br />
((Pause))<br />
Sara: Bill you want some? <br />
Bill: No,<br />
(Sacks, Schegloff, Jefferson, p703)<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">Here, Sara as a current speaker allocates the turn by the selection of next speaker, Ben in line one, and in line three Sara allocates her turn by self-selection. Thus, turn-allocation component regulates turn change among participants and comprise a set of rules for the allocation of next speaker's turn in order to get a smooth transition.</div><div class="blogger-post-footer"><img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/9019381932392089453-1310406522177120571?l=linguisticcafe.blogspot.com' alt='' /></div>Ahmed Fathyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01277619691895114272noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9019381932392089453.post-9669970443196412102010-08-24T20:40:00.000-07:002011-03-27T12:13:44.595-07:002011-03-27T12:13:44.595-07:00Turn-taking mechanism<div style="text-align: justify;">The concept of turn taking is central to Conversation Analysis। Turn taking organizes the distribution and the flow of speech between the two participants of interaction thereby keeping speech continuous। Turn-taking has been described as a process in which one participant talks, then stops and gives the floor to another participant who starts talking, so we obtain a distribution of talk across two participants। The time gap between one person stopping and the other starting being just a few fractions of a second, yet the co-ordination is achieved with some rapidity and turns are appropriated in orderly fashion। Overlaps can occur, though it is estimated only in about five percent of interaction, but even, there is a level of systematicity involved. Moreover, turn taking regularities are observable in instances where there are more than two participants and in cases where participants are not face-to-face, as in the phone conversation. Thus, the organization of conversation must be controlled by some kind of mechanism which facilitates the orderly distribution of turn and governs the progress of talks in a Variety of contexts and for a variety of purposes (Herman, pp78-79).</div><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">The description of this mechanism has been the objective of many linguists. Sacks, Schegloff, and Jefferson are considered to be the pioneers in this area who propose the turn-taking mechanism in their seminal review "The Systematics of turn-taking in conversation". They examine a variety of recorded, natural conversations. They conclude that the turn-taking seems a basic form of organization for conversation. They found out the following facts:</div><ol><li>Speaker change recurs, or at least occurs.</li>
<li>Overwhelmingly, one party talks at a time.</li>
<li>Occurrences of more than one speaker at a time are common but brief.</li>
<li>Transitions (from one turn to a next) with no gap and no overlap are common. Together with transitions characterized by slight gap or overlap, they make up the vast majority of transitions. </li>
<li>Turn order is not fixed, but varies.</li>
<li>Turn size is not fixed, but varies.</li>
<li>Length of conversation is not specified in advance.</li>
<li>What parties say is not specified in advance. </li>
<li>Number of parties can vary.</li>
<li>Relative distribution of turns is not specified in advance.</li>
<li>Turn- allocation techniques are obviously used. A current speaker (as when he addresses a question to another party), or parties may self-select in starting to talk.</li>
<li>Talk can be continuous or discontinuous.</li>
<li>Various turn-constructional units are employed e.g., turns can be projectedly 'one word long' or can be sentential in length. </li>
<li style="text-align: left;">Repair mechanisms exist for dealing with turn-taking errors and violations; e।g। if two parties find themselves talking at the same time, one of them will stop prematurely, thus repairing the trouble।</li>
</ol>(Sacks, Schegloff, Jefferson PP 700-701)<br />
<br />
<br />
As this list show, the study includes extensive observation on turn taking, such as turn order, length of conversation, turn allocation and repair mechaanism.<div class="blogger-post-footer"><img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/9019381932392089453-966997044319641210?l=linguisticcafe.blogspot.com' alt='' /></div>Ahmed Fathyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01277619691895114272noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9019381932392089453.post-62268441075193085972010-08-24T20:21:00.000-07:002011-03-27T12:14:09.491-07:002011-03-27T12:14:09.491-07:00Turn taking<div style="text-align: justify;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_5flBCPrU9WQ/THSPSGio0xI/AAAAAAAAAAM/EWSwMM7JG00/s1600/conversation.gif" onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5509185785337271058" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_5flBCPrU9WQ/THSPSGio0xI/AAAAAAAAAAM/EWSwMM7JG00/s200/conversation.gif" style="cursor: pointer; float: left; height: 154px; margin: 0pt 10px 10px 0pt; width: 200px;" /></a> Conversation is a means of social interaction involving two or more participants who talk about certain topic. Therefore, conversation is determined to build a social relationship in society. Conversation is more than merely the exchange of talk. In conversation, two or more people participate in exchanging ideas. It means that there are at least two individuals who take part in the conversation as the speaker and the listener and the two participants have to take turn of speaking. Each participant has the power to control the floor in ongoing conversation. Each participant has their own way to get the floor which can be defined as the right to speak. However, there will be only one participant who speaks at a time. Since there will be two or more participants in a conversation, we could not estimate who will take the turn because each participant has the same right to speak. Therefore, each participant has the same opportunity to take the turn. The exchange of turn occurs orderly. The reason is that there are rules which govern our conversation. When someone talks, the others will listen to him and wait for their turns. Those rules are called turn taking system.</div><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">Participants could not take the control as they want. There is a set of rules that governs one's speech, when a speaker takes the turn, giving turn, or keeping it. Turn taking system is proposed to make sure that there is only one participant who speaks at a time with the minimal gaps and overlaps in each turn change. Turn-taking is considered to play an essential role in structuring people’s social interactions in terms of control and regulation of conversation. Therefore the system of turn-taking has become object of analysis for both linguists and sociologists. Sacks, Schegloff and Jefferson are a group of sociologists who are considered to be the most influential in the area of Turn-Taking. They are the first linguists to introduce turn taking and discover how conversation works and what methods people use to participate in and make sense of interaction. They examine a variety of recorded conversations from everyday life and conclude that turn taking seems to be a basic form of organization for conversation and that organization must be controlled by some kind of mechanism which facilitates the orderly distribution of turns and govern the process of talk in their seminal review of the systemics of turn-taking in conversation. They also construct the rules that coordinate our spontaneous interaction. These rules organize who should take the floor and who should keep silent until his/her turn and at which point the speaker changes. Moreover, they wanted to know If the speaking turns are not pre-allocated, how do participants in the conversation select the next speaker?. After carefully studying very detailed transcripts of actual recorded conversations, they proposed what they called the turn-allocation component of the turn-taking system.</div><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">There are also cues through which people know when they have to take the turn or give it to the other participant. Those cues play an important role to minimize gaps and overlaps and to accomplish smooth conversation. They are cues given by the speaker in the conversation to indicate the beginning and the end of his turn. The study of conversational organization assumes that there are ways by which speaker communicates his desire to yield, take, or maintain the floor. Those cues can be verbal or non-verbal. Although the use of nonverbal cues is universal and innate, their meaning is culture-bound. Turn-taking cues are probably not generalized to all cultures. It has been found that cross-cultural differences in patterns of turn-taking cues like eye behavior are a potential problem in social interaction. The British do not nod their heads to let you know they understand; rather, they will blink their eyes to let you know they have heard you. Conversation will not always be accomplished smoothly. There will be some phenomena accompany the conversation such as gaps, overlaps, and interruption. On the other hand, there are phenomena which help the conversation to pass smoothly such as the phenomena of back-channels and adjacency pairs. Although turn taking rules govern who should take the turn and who keeps silent or leave the floor for other participant, there are other elements that contribute to the flow conversation such as Turn taking Cues, Adjacency pairs and turn taking Features.</div><div class="blogger-post-footer"><img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/9019381932392089453-6226844107519308597?l=linguisticcafe.blogspot.com' alt='' /></div>Ahmed Fathyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01277619691895114272noreply@blogger.com0